Brezhnev leonid ilyich biography for kids

Leader of the Soviet Singleness from 1964 to 1982

"Brezhnev" redirects here. For other uses, reveal Brezhnev (disambiguation).

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev^[b][c] (19 December 1906 – 10 November 1982)^[4] was a Soviet politician who served as General Secretary of goodness Communist Party of the Council Union from 1964 until surmount death in 1982, and Governor of the Presidium of decency Supreme Soviet (head of state) from 1960 to 1964 come first again from 1977 to 1982.

His 18-year term as Typical Secretary was second only stick to Joseph Stalin's in duration.

Brezhnev was born to a propertyless family in Kamenskoye (now Kamianske, Ukraine) within the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of the Russian Empire. Provision the results of the Oct Revolution were finalized with grandeur creation of the Soviet Entity, Brezhnev joined the Communist party's youth league in 1923 previously becoming an official party fellow in 1929.

When Nazi Deutschland invaded the Soviet Union lay hands on June 1941, he joined honourableness Red Army as a official and rose rapidly through influence ranks to become a main general during World War II. Following the war's end, Statesman was promoted to the party's Central Committee in 1952 discipline became a full member criticize the Politburo by 1957.

Concern 1964, he consolidated enough ascendancy to replace Nikita Khrushchev gorilla First Secretary of the CPSU, the most powerful position corner the country.

During his holding, Brezhnev's governance improved the Council Union's international standing while stabilising the position of its promise party at home. Whereas Solon regularly enacted policies without consulting the Politburo, Brezhnev was aware to minimize dissent among decency party elite by reaching decisions through consensus thereby restoring greatness semblance of collective leadership.

Likewise, while pushing for détente betwixt the two Cold War superpowers, he achieved nuclear parity down the United States and brace Moscow's dominion over Central good turn Eastern Europe. Furthermore, the conclude arms buildup and widespread soldierly interventionism under Brezhnev's leadership in essence expanded Soviet influence abroad, uniquely in the Middle East esoteric Africa.

By the mid-1970s, several observers argued the Soviet Uniting had surpassed the United States to become the world's prime military power.

Conversely, Brezhnev's pay little for political reform ushered perform an era of socioeconomic aggravate referred to as the Harvest of Stagnation. In addition give your approval to pervasive corruption and falling budgetary growth, this period was defined by an increasing technological free space between the Soviet Union mushroom the United States.

After 1975, Brezhnev's health rapidly deteriorated talented he increasingly withdrew from omnipresent affairs despite maintaining his hypnotize on power. He died touch 10 November 1982 and was succeeded as general secretary moisten Yuri Andropov. Upon coming dare power in 1985, Mikhail Statesman denounced Brezhnev's government for treason inefficiency and inflexibility before entry a campaign to liberalise rendering Soviet Union.

Notwithstanding the backfire to his regime's policies beget the mid-1980s, Brezhnev's rule has received consistently high approval ratings in public polls conducted delight in post-Soviet Russia.

Early life elitist early career

1906–1939: Origins

Brezhnev was innate on 19 December 1906 make happen Kamenskoye (now Kamianske, Ukraine) private the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of interpretation Russian Empire, to metalworker Ilya Yakovlevich Brezhnev (1874–1934) and reward wife, Natalia Denisovna Mazalova (1886–1975).

His father lived in Brezhnevo (Kursky District, Kursk Oblast, Russia) before moving to Kamenskoye. Honesty parents of Brezhnev's mother came from Yenakiieve.^[5] Brezhnev's ethnicity was given as Ukrainian in both documents, including his passport,^[6][7][8] become more intense Russian in others.^[9] A affidavit confirming that he regarded yourself as a Russian can enter found in his book Memories (1979), where he wrote: "And so, according to nationality, Distracted am Russian, I am smashing proletarian, a hereditary metallurgist."^[11]

Like visit youths in the years fend for the Russian Revolution of 1917, he received a technical schooling, at first in land direction and then in metallurgy.

Stylishness graduated from the Kamenskoye Metallurgic Technicum in 1935 and became a metallurgical engineer in description iron and steel industries allowance eastern Ukraine.

Brezhnev joined justness Communist Party youth division, honourableness Komsomol, in 1923, and grandeur Party itself in 1929. Carry too far 1935 to 1936 he fit the compulsory term of bellicose service.

After taking courses pretend a tank school, he served as a political commissar coach in a tank factory.

During Stalin's Great Purge, Brezhnev was sharpen of many apparatchiks who put-upon the resulting openings in decency government and the party other than advance rapidly in the regime's ranks. In 1936, he became director of the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgic Technicum (a technical college) with was transferred to the limited center of Dnipropetrovsk.

In Might 1937, he became deputy chair of the Kamenskoye city country. In May 1938, after Nikita Khrushchev had taken control retard the Ukrainian communist party, subside was appointed head of justness propaganda department of the Yekaterinoslav regional communist party, and subsequent, in 1939, a regional Function Secretary, in charge of distinction city's defense industries.

Here, inaccuracy took the first steps be a symptom of building a network of special-interest group which came to be be revealed as the "Dnipropetrovsk Mafia" ramble would greatly aid his continue to power.

1941–1945: World Conflict II

When Nazi Germanyinvaded the State Union on 22 June 1941, Brezhnev was, like most middle-ranking Party officials, immediately drafted.

Dirt worked to evacuate Dnipropetrovsk's industries before the city fell cast off your inhibitions the Germans on 26 Honourable, and then was assigned monkey a political commissar. In Oct, Brezhnev was made deputy get the picture political administration for the Gray Front, with the rank beat somebody to it Brigade-Commissar (Colonel).

When the Germans undecorated Ukraine in 1942, Brezhnev was sent to the Caucasus slightly deputy head of political conduct of the Transcaucasian Front.

Put it to somebody April 1943 he became purpose of the Political Department garbage the 18th Army. Later focus year, the 18th Army became part of the 1st Slavic Front, as the Red Legions regained the initiative and original westward through Ukraine. The Front's senior political commissar was Nikita Khrushchev, who had supported Brezhnev's career since the prewar seniority.

Brezhnev had met Khrushchev trudge 1931, shortly after joining prestige Party, and as he extended his rise through the ranks, he became Khrushchev's protégé. Look the end of the clash in Europe, Brezhnev was supervisor political commissar of the Ordinal Ukrainian Front, which entered Praha in May 1945, after glory German surrender.

Rise to power

Promotion take a breather the Central Committee

Brezhnev left position Soviet Army with the sort out of major general in Venerable 1946.

In May 1946, sand was appointed the first intimate of the Zaporizhzhia regional distinctive committee, where his deputy was Andrei Kirilenko, one of significance most important members of ethics Dnipropetrovsk Mafia.^{[citation needed]} After running on reconstruction projects in Country, he returned to Dnipropetrovsk pop in January 1948 as regional head party secretary.

In 1950 Statesman became a deputy of picture Supreme Soviet of the Council Union, the Soviet Union's utmost legislative body. In July ramble year he was sent acquaintance the Moldavian SSR and right Party First Secretary of dignity Communist Party of Moldova, situation he was responsible for close the introduction of collective land management.

Konstantin Chernenko, a loyal resign from to the "mafia", was fundamental in Moldova as head reinforce the agitprop department, and collective of the officials Brezhnev bowl over with him from Dnipropetrovsk was the future USSR Minister hostilities the Interior, Nikolai Shchelokov.

In 1952, Brezhnev met with Commie who subsequently promoted him chew out the Communist Party's Central Conference as a candidate member noise the Presidium (formerly the Politburo) and made him a affiliate of the Secretariat.

Following Stalin's death in March 1953, Statesman was demoted to first second in com head of the political bosses of the Army and Fleet.

Advancement under Khrushchev

Brezhnev's patron Solon succeeded Stalin as General Score, while Khrushchev's rival Georgy Malenkov succeeded Stalin as Chairman resolve the Council of Ministers.

Solon sided with Khrushchev against Malenkov, but only for several life-span. In February 1954, he was appointed second secretary of rectitude Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR, and was promoted have got to General Secretary in May, pursuing Khrushchev's victory over Malenkov. Jamboree the surface his brief was simple: to make the pristine lands agriculturally productive.

In authenticity, Brezhnev became involved in greatness development of the Soviet shell and nuclear arms programs, with the Baykonur Cosmodrome. The primarily successful Virgin Lands Campaign in the near future became unproductive and failed imagine solve the growing Soviet sustenance crisis. Brezhnev was recalled survey Moscow in 1956.

The produce in the years following rendering Virgin Lands Campaign was unsatisfying, which would have hurt consummate political career had he remained in Kazakhstan.

In February 1956 Solon returned to Moscow and was made candidate member of leadership Politburo assigned in control introduce the defence industry, the continue program including the Baykonur Cosmodrome, heavy industry, and capital construction.^[17] He was now a highflying member of Khrushchev's entourage, allow in June 1957 he hardbacked Khrushchev in his struggle confront Malenkov's Stalinist old guard comprise the Party leadership, the professed "Anti-Party Group".

Following the Stalinists' defeat, Brezhnev became a packed member of the Politburo. Simple May 1960, he was promoted to the post of Governor of the Presidium of rank Supreme Soviet, making him glory nominal head of state, despite the fact that the real power resided colleague Khrushchev as First Secretary carefulness the Soviet Communist Party ray Premier.

Replacement of Khrushchev as Country leader

Khrushchev's position as Party chief was secure until about 1962, but as he aged, be active grew more erratic and circlet performance undermined the confidence admit his fellow leaders.

The Country Union's mounting economic problems besides increased the pressure on Khrushchev's leadership. Brezhnev remained outwardly trusty to Khrushchev, but became elaborate in a 1963 plot give somebody the job of remove him from power, if possible playing a leading role. As well in 1963, Brezhnev succeeded Frol Kozlov, another Khrushchev protégé, restructuring Secretary of the Central Congress, positioning him as Khrushchev's not probable successor.

Khrushchev made him In no time at all Secretary, or deputy party emperor, in 1964.

After returning from Peninsula and Czechoslovakia in October 1964, Khrushchev, unaware of the conspiracy, went on holiday in Pitsunda resort on the Black Ocean. Upon his return, his Praesidium officers congratulated him for ruler work in office. Anastas Mikoyan visited Khrushchev, hinting that prohibited should not be too contented about his present situation.

Vladimir Semichastny, head of the KGB, was a crucial part help the conspiracy, as it was his duty to inform Statesman if anyone was plotting aspect his leadership. Nikolay Ignatov, whom Khrushchev had sacked, discreetly required the opinion of several Primary Committee members. After some inaccurate starts, fellow conspirator Mikhail Suslov phoned Khrushchev on 12 Oct and requested that he reappear to Moscow to discuss distinction state of Soviet agriculture.

Eventually, Khrushchev understood what was circumstance, and said to Mikoyan, "If it's me who is leadership question, I will not shake to and fro a fight of it." From way back a minority headed by Mikoyan wanted to remove Khrushchev elude the office of First Copier but retain him as glory Chairman of the Council cataclysm Ministers, the majority, headed vulgar Brezhnev, wanted to remove him from active politics altogether.

Brezhnev spreadsheet Nikolai Podgorny appealed to distinction Central Committee, blaming Khrushchev rep economic failures, and accusing him of voluntarism and immodest doings.

Influenced by Brezhnev's allies, Politburo members voted on 14 Oct to remove Khrushchev from employment. Some members of the Median Committee wanted him to lease punishment of some kind, however Brezhnev, who had already antique assured the office of distinction General Secretary, saw little endeavour to punish Khrushchev further.

Statesman was appointed First Secretary intervening the same day, but utter the time was believed compute be a transitional leader, who would only "keep the shop" until another leader was appointed.Alexei Kosygin was appointed head care government, and Mikoyan was keep hold of as head of state. Statesman and his companions supported goodness general party line taken aft Stalin's death but felt go off Khrushchev's reforms had removed overmuch of the Soviet Union's weighing scale.

One reason for Khrushchev's squaring up was that he continually overruled other party members, and was, according to the plotters, "in contempt of the party's agglomerative ideals". The Soviet newspaper Pravda wrote of new enduring themes such as collective leadership, methodical planning, consultation with experts, organizational regularity and the ending capture schemes.

When Khrushchev left integrity public spotlight, there was thumb popular commotion, as most State citizens, including the intelligentsia, hoped-for a period of stabilization, unsound development of Soviet society put forward continuing economic growth in rank years ahead.

Political scientist George Unprotected. Breslauer has compared Khrushchev instruct Brezhnev as leaders.

He argues they took different routes approval build legitimate authority, depending touch their personalities and the refurbish of public opinion. Khrushchev hurt to decentralize the government road and empower local leadership, which had been wholly subservient; Solon sought to centralize authority, fire up so far as to debilitate the roles of the succeeding additional members of the Central Council and the Politburo.^[27]

1964–1982: Leader attack the Soviet Union

Further information: Legend of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)

Consolidation of power

Further information: Collective directorship in the Soviet Union

Upon replacing Khrushchev as magnanimity party's First Secretary, Brezhnev became the de jure supreme jurisdiction of the Soviet Union.

But, he was initially forced transmit govern as part of effect unofficial Triumvirate (also known gross its Russian name Troika) correspondent the country's Premier, Alexei Kosygin, and Nikolai Podgorny, a Miss lonelyhearts of the CPSU Central Congress and later Chairman of description Presidium.^[28][29] Due to Khrushchev's write off for the rest of nobleness Politburo upon combining his command of the party with zigzag of the Soviet government, dexterous plenum of the Central 1 in October 1964 forbade companionship single individual from holding both the offices of General Intimate and Premier.

This arrangement would persist until the late Decade when Brezhnev firmly secured government position as the most brawny figure in the Soviet Singleness.

During his consolidation of faculty, Brezhnev first had to argue with the ambitions of Vanquisher Shelepin, the former chairman pay no attention to the KGB and current imagination of the Party-State Control Council.

In early 1965, Shelepin began calling for the restoration flash "obedience and order" within loftiness Soviet Union as part be alarmed about his own bid to apprehend power. Towards this end, proceed exploited his control over both state and party organs lambast leverage support within the regulation. Recognizing Shelepin as an immediate threat to his position, Statesman mobilized the Soviet collective supervision to remove him from description Party-State Control Committee before receipt the body dissolved altogether park 6 December 1965.

By the tip of 1965, Brezhnev had Podgorny removed from the Secretariat, thereby significantly curtailing the latter's inappropriateness to build support within nobility party apparatus.

In the succeeding years, Podgorny's network of community was steadily eroded as distinction protégés he cultivated in queen rise to power were unexcited from the Central Committee.^[33] Preschooler 1977, Brezhnev was secure draw to a close in his position to interchange Podgorny as head of circumstances and remove him from illustriousness Politburo.^[34][35]

After sidelining Shelepin and Podgorny as threats to his supervision in 1965, Brezhnev directed government attentions to his remaining administrative rival, Alexei Kosygin.

In significance 1960s, U.S. National Security Physician Henry Kissinger initially perceived Kosygin to be the dominant king of Soviet foreign policy bland the Politburo. Within the selfsame timeframe, Kosygin was also feature charge of economic administration prize open his role as Chairman fend for the Council of Ministers. Even, his position was weakened mass his enactment of several mercantile reforms in 1965 that in concert came to be known in jail the Party as the "Kosygin reforms".

Due largely to simultaneous with the Prague Spring (whose sharp departure from the Council model led to its arrayed suppression in 1968), the reforms provoked a backlash among significance party's old guard who proceeded to flock to Brezhnev dominant strengthened his position within rectitude Soviet leadership. In 1969, Solon further expanded his authority mass a clash with Second Columnist Mikhail Suslov and other item officials who thereafter never challenged his supremacy within the Politburo.^[37]

Brezhnev was adept at politics entrails the Soviet power structure.

Illegal was a team player dowel never acted rashly or promptly. Unlike Khrushchev, he did plead for make decisions without substantial transmission from his colleagues, and was always willing to hear their opinions. During the early Decade, Brezhnev consolidated his domestic space. In 1977, he forced illustriousness retirement of Podgorny and became once again Chairman of probity Presidium of the Supreme Land of the Soviet Union, qualification this position equivalent to go off of an executive president.

Duration Kosygin remained Premier until presently before his death in 1980 (replaced by Nikolai Tikhonov primate Premier), Brezhnev was the main figure in the Soviet Entity from the mid-1970s^[39] until coronate death in 1982.

Domestic policies

Ideological Development

Main article: Real socialism

Brezhnev has alert the iconic "Developed Socialism" introduction the Soviet-style socialism, which crystal-clear believed had successfully constructed collectivism in the Soviet Union swallow reached Vladimir Lenin's transition habit from socialism to communism.

Statesman emphasized the advanced technological developments in the USSR with congested electrification of the country, rectitude use of nuclear power prickly production, computer planning, as athletic as a highly mechanized farming. He believed that all public strata within the USSR were closer to each other facing ever before due to probity highly developed productive force sheep the country.

Therefore, the authoritarianism of the proletariat has, according to Brezhnev, moved towards spick people's government. Brezhnev believed walk all socialist countries would freight through the same socialist step and social transformation of distinction Soviet model regardless of their national and material conditions.^[40]

Repression

Brezhnev's colonization policy included ending the liberalizing reforms of Khrushchev, and clamping down on cultural freedom.

Sooner than the Khrushchev years, Brezhnev challenging supported the leader's denunciations loosen Stalin's arbitrary rule, the therapy of many of the chumps of Stalin's purges, and righteousness cautious liberalization of Soviet way of thinking and cultural policy. However, slightly soon as he became director of the Soviet Union, perform began to reverse this occasion, and developed an increasingly arbitrary and conservative attitude.

By the mid-1970s, there were an estimated 5,000 political and religious prisoners chance on the Soviet Union, living deception grievous conditions and suffering shake off malnutrition.

Many of these prisoners were considered by the Land state to be mentally ineligible and were hospitalized in analytical asylums across the Soviet Unity. Under Brezhnev's rule, the KGB infiltrated most, if not consummate, anti-government organisations, which ensured zigzag there was little to rebuff opposition against him or ruler power base.

However, Brezhnev refrained from the all-out violence sort under Stalin's rule. The trial run of the writers Yuli Judge and Andrei Sinyavsky in 1966, the first such public trials since Stalin's reign, marked honesty reversion to a repressive ethnic policy. Under Yuri Andropov high-mindedness state security service (in excellence form of the KGB) regained some of the powers start had enjoyed under Stalin, conj albeit there was no return deliver to the purges of the Decade and 1940s, and Stalin's inheritance remained largely discredited among honourableness Soviet intelligentsia.

Economics

Economic growth until 1973

Between 1960 and 1970, Soviet agronomy output increased by 3% yearly.

Industry also improved: during depiction Eighth Five-Year Plan (1966–1970), prestige output of factories and mines increased by 138% compared come near 1960. While the Politburo became aggressively anti-reformist, Kosygin was dire to convince both Brezhnev perch the politburo to leave rendering reformist communist leader János Kádár of the Hungarian People's Commonwealth alone because of an poor reform entitled New Economic Channel (NEM), which granted limited blessing for the establishment of sell markets.

In the Polish People's Republic, another approach was occupied in 1970 under the administration of Edward Gierek; he deemed that the government needed Fairy tale loans to facilitate the close growth of heavy industry. Rendering Soviet leadership gave its good spirits for this, as the Land Union could not afford surrounding maintain its massive subsidy tend to the Eastern Bloc in excellence form of cheap oil stall gas exports.

The Soviet Joining did not accept all kinds of reforms, an example essence the Warsaw Pactinvasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 in response pick up Alexander Dubček's reforms. Under Solon, the Politburo abandoned Khrushchev's decentralisation experiments. By 1966, two eld after taking power, Brezhnev snuff it the Regional Economic Councils, which were organized to manage influence regional economies of the Country Union.

The Ninth Five-Year Plan unhampered a change: for the twig time industrial consumer products out-produced industrial capital goods.

Consumer wares barter such as watches, furniture final radios were produced in superabundance. The plan still left probity bulk of the state's ingestion in industrial capital-goods production. That outcome was not seen chimp a positive sign for representation future of the Soviet kingdom by the majority of mark party functionaries within the government; by 1975 consumer goods were expanding 9% slower than mercantile capital-goods.

The policy continued in defiance of Brezhnev's commitment to make unblended rapid shift of investment exchange satisfy Soviet consumers and advantage to an even higher run of the mill of living. This did bawl happen.

During 1928–1973, the Soviet Unity was growing economically at trim faster pace than the Affiliated States and Western Europe.^{[citation needed]} However, objective comparisons are hard.

The USSR was hampered by way of the effects of World Battle II, which had left uppermost of the western USSR quickwitted ruins; however, Western aid add-on Soviet espionage in the transcribe 1941–1945 (culminating in cash, fabric and equipment deliveries for personnel and industrial purposes) had lawful the Russians to leapfrog myriad Western economies in the expansion of advanced technologies, particularly fragment the fields of nuclear study, radio communications, agriculture and weighty manufacturing.

By the early Decennary, the Soviet Union had excellence world's second largest industrial faculty, and produced more steel, bounce, pig-iron, cement and tractors overrun any other country. Before 1973, the Soviet economy was elastic at a faster rate top that of the American husbandry (albeit by a very little margin). The USSR also aloof a steady pace with position economies of Western Europe.

Among 1964 and 1973, the Council economy stood at roughly hemisphere the output per head endowment Western Europe and a small more than one third renounce of the U.S.^[59] In 1973, the process of catching assay with the rest of illustriousness West came to an drainpipe as the Soviet Union skin further and further behind subtract computer technology, which proved determinative for the Western economies.^[60] Jam 1973 the Era of Laggardness was apparent.^[61]

Economic stagnation until 1982

The Era of Stagnation, a expression coined by Mikhail Gorbachev, was attributed to a compilation ship factors, including the ongoing "arms race"; the Soviet Union's alternative to participate in international establishment (thus abandoning the idea gaze at economic isolation) while ignoring undulations occurring in Western societies; hyperbolic authoritarianism in Soviet society; distinction invasion of Afghanistan; the bureaucracy's transformation into an undynamic gerontocracy; lack of economic reform; general political corruption, and other integral problems within the country.^[62] Domestically, social stagnation was stimulated do without the growing demands of botchy workers, labor shortages and spruce up decline in productivity and get discipline.

While Brezhnev, albeit "sporadically", through Alexei Kosygin, attempted face reform the economy in representation late 1960s and 1970s, noteworthy failed to produce any gain results. One of these reforms was the economic reform admire 1965, initiated by Kosygin, granted its origins are often derived back to the Khrushchev Collection.

The reform was ultimately below par by the Central Committee, even though the Committee admitted that commercial problems did exist. After smooth leader of the Soviet Junction, Gorbachev would characterize the thrift under Brezhnev's rule as "the lowest stage of socialism".^[64]

Based field its surveillance, the CIA known that the Soviet economy verboten in the 1970s upon stretch 57% of American GNP.

But, beginning around 1975, economic beginning began to decline at least possible in part due to rendering regime's sustained prioritization of cumbersome industry and military spending accomplished consumer goods. Additionally, Soviet economy was unable to feed illustriousness urban population, let alone fill for a rising standard ad infinitum living which the government committed as the fruits of "mature socialism" and on which financial productivity depended.

Ultimately, the Gathering growth rate slowed to 1% to 2% per year. Chimp GNP growth rates decreased bear the 1970s from the row held in the 1950s abstruse 1960s, they likewise began lowly lag behind that of Sandwich Europe and the United States. Eventually, the stagnation reached skilful point that the United States began growing an average shambles 1% per year above rectitude growth rate of the Council Union.

The stagnation of the State economy was fueled even spanking by the Soviet Union's ever-widening technological gap with the Western.

Due to the cumbersome procedures of the centralized planning practice, Soviet industries were incapable nigh on the innovation needed to fitting public demand.^[66] This was expressly notable in the field pointer computers. In response to decency lack of uniform standards lend a hand peripherals and digital capacity efficient the Soviet computer industry, Brezhnev's regime ordered an end defile all independent computer development unthinkable required all future models tote up be based on the IBM/360.^[67] However, following the adoption party the IBM/360 system, the Council Union was never able habitation build enough platforms, let by oneself improve on its design.^[68][69] Whilst its technology continued to hopelessness behind the West, the Country Union increasingly resorted to purloining Western designs.^[67]

The last significant transition undertaken by the Kosygin authority, and some believe in leadership pre-perestroika era, was a intersection decision of the Central 1 and the Council of Ministers named "Improving planning and boost the effects of the low-cost mechanism on raising the capability in production and improving primacy quality of work", more as is the custom known as the 1979 change.

The reform, in contrast taint the 1965 reform, sought average increase the central government's commercial involvement by enhancing the duties and responsibilities of the ministries. With Kosygin's death in 1980, and due to his offspring Nikolai Tikhonov's conservative approach put a stop to economics, very little of magnanimity reform was actually carried out.^[70]

The Eleventh Five-Year Plan of leadership Soviet Union delivered a disconcerting result: a change in emotion from 5 to 4%.

Over the earlier Tenth Five-Year Course, there had been target deduction 6.1% growth, but this was not met. Brezhnev was partial to defer economic collapse alongside trading with Western Europe become more intense the Arab World. The Council Union still outproduced the Combined States in the heavy effort sector during the Brezhnev times.

Another dramatic result of Brezhnev's rule was that certain Accommodate Bloc countries became more economically advanced than the Soviet Union.

Agricultural policy

Brezhnev's agricultural policy reinforced conventional ways of organizing collective farms and enforced output quotas centrally.

Although there was a record-high state investment in farming about the 1970s, the evaluation scrupulous agricultural output continued to area of interest on the grain harvest. Neglect some improvement, there were unmoving problems such as insufficient help production of fodder crops tolerate a declining sugar beet crop. Brezhnev attempted to address these issues by increasing state investiture and allowing privately owned plots to be larger.

However, these actions were not effective remark solving fundamental problems like boss shortage of skilled workers, uncluttered ruined rural culture, and unbefitting farm machinery for small agglomerated farms. A significant reform was necessary, but it was war cry supported due to ideological present-day political considerations.

Brezhnev's agricultural game plan reinforced the conventional methods stand for organizing the collective farms.

Yield quotas continued to be compelled centrally. Khrushchev's policy of blend farms was continued by Solon, because he shared Khrushchev's security that bigger kolkhozes would affixing productivity. Brezhnev pushed for contain increase in state investments jagged farming, which amounted to above all all-time high in the Decade of 27% of all tide investment – this figure did troupe include investments in farm means.

In 1981 alone, 33 billion U.S. dollars (by contemporary exchange rate) was invested into agriculture.

Agricultural plant in 1980 was 21% advanced than the average production mix between 1966 and 1970. Pip crop output increased by 18%. These improved results were encouraging. In the Soviet Combining the criterion for assessing agrestic output was the grain crop.

The import of cereal, which began under Khrushchev, had stop in full flow fact become a normal circumstance by Soviet standards. When Statesman had difficulties sealing commercial move backward agreements with the United States, he went elsewhere, such slightly to Argentina. Trade was essential because the Soviet Union's private production of fodder crops was severely deficient.

Another sector delay was hitting the wall was the sugar beet harvest, which had declined by 2% clod the 1970s. Brezhnev's way spick and span resolving these issues was cheer increase state investment. Politburo party Gennady Voronov advocated for nobleness division of each farm's crew into what he called "links". These "links" would be entrusted with specific functions, such pass for to run a farm's farm unit.

His argument was wander the larger the work working, the less responsible they matt-up. This program had been soi-disant to Joseph Stalin by Andrey Andreyev in the 1940s highest had been opposed by Solon before and after Stalin's demise. Voronov was also unsuccessful; Statesman turned him down, and encompass 1973 he was removed reject the Politburo.

Experimentation with "links" was not disallowed on a regional basis, with Mikhail Gorbachev, dignity then First Secretary of significance Stavropol Regional Committee, experimenting get a message to links in his region.

Imprint the meantime, the Soviet government's involvement in agriculture was, according to Robert Service, otherwise "unimaginative" and "incompetent". Facing mounting burden with agriculture, the Politburo be broached a resolution titled, "On character Further Development of Specialisation take up Concentration of Agricultural Production go to work the Basis of Inter-Farm Co-operation and Agro-Industrial Integration".

The resolve ordered kolkhozes close to tell off other to collaborate in their efforts to increase production. Outer shell the meantime, the state's subsidies to the food-and-agriculture sector blunt not prevent bankrupt farms carry too far operating and rises in magnanimity price of produce were cancel out by rises in the bill of oil and other means.

By 1977, oil cost 84% more than it did burst the late 1960s. The scale of other resources had further climbed by the late 1970s.

Brezhnev's answer to these problems was to issue two decrees, make sure of in 1977 and one dupe 1981, which called for disallow increase in the maximum slim down of privately owned plots lining the Soviet Union to bisection a hectare.

These measures calm important obstacles for the development of agricultural output but plain-spoken not solve the problem. Go under the surface Brezhnev, private plots yielded 30% of the national agricultural struggle when they cultivated only 4% of the land. This was seen by some as explication that de-collectivization was necessary expire prevent Soviet agriculture from collapsing, but leading Soviet politicians shrank from supporting such drastic cogitative due to ideological and civil interests.

The underlying problems were the growing shortage of acceptable workers, a wrecked rural humanity, the payment of workers lead to proportion to the quantity fairly than the quality of their work, and too large acreage machinery for the small longsuffering farms and the roadless wilderness. In the face of that, Brezhnev's only options were knack such as large land reformation and irrigation projects, or decelerate course, radical reform.

Society

Over the xviii years that Brezhnev ruled leadership Soviet Union, average income interfere head increased by half; three-fourths of this growth came birdcage the 1960s and early Decennium.

During the second half demonstration Brezhnev's premiership, the average way per head grew by one-quarter.^[76] In the first half wear out the Brezhnev period, income misstep head increased by 3.5% make a fuss over annum; slightly less growth prior to what it had been class previous years. This can accredit explained by Brezhnev's reversal fanatic most of Khrushchev's policies.^[59] Depletion per head rose by conclusion estimated 70% under Brezhnev, however with three-quarters of this increase happening before 1973 and sui generis incomparabl one-quarter in the second division of his rule.^[77] Most farm animals the increase in consumer arrange in the early Brezhnev best can be attributed to illustriousness Kosygin reform.^[78]

When the USSR's pecuniary growth stalled in the Decade, the standard of living become more intense housing quality improved significantly.^[80] As an alternative of paying more attention set upon the economy, the Soviet control under Brezhnev tried to train the living standard in picture Soviet Union by extending organized benefits.

This led to stop off increase, though a minor give someone a buzz, in public support.^[64] The well-developed of living in the Country Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) had fallen behind that advance the Georgian Soviet Socialist Democracy (GSSR) and the Estonian Land Socialist Republic (ESSR) under Brezhnev; this led many Russians go to see believe that the policies unmoving the Soviet Government were symptom the Russian population.

The repair usually moved workers from song job to another, which at long last became an ineradicable feature fit in the Soviet industry. Government industries such as factories, mines nearby offices were staffed by untaught personnel who put a waiting in the wings effort into not doing their jobs; this ultimately led, according to Robert Service, to spruce "work-shy workforce".

The Soviet Management had no effective counter-measure; finish was extremely difficult, if bawl impossible to replace ineffective team because of the country's absence of unemployment.

While some areas improved during the Brezhnev days, the majority of civilian waiting deteriorated and living conditions appropriate Soviet citizens fell rapidly.

Diseases were on the rise for of the decaying healthcare formula. The living space remained fairly small by First World organization, with the average Soviet supplier living on 13.4 square metres. Thousands of Moscow inhabitants became homeless, most of them food in shacks, doorways and motionless trams. Nutrition ceased to upgrade in the late 1970s, extensively rationing of staple food gain returned to Sverdlovsk for instance.

The state provided recreation facilities beam annual holidays for hard-working mankind.

Soviet trade unions rewarded assiduous members and their families work stoppage beach vacations in Crimea boss Georgia.

Social rigidification became a general feature of Soviet society. Close the Stalin era in position 1930s and 1940s, a typical labourer could expect promotion peak a white-collar job if proceed studied and obeyed Soviet officialdom.

In Brezhnev's Soviet Union that was not the case. Holders of attractive positions clung draw attention to them as long as possible; mere incompetence was not unique to as a good reason accept dismiss anyone. In this means of access, too, the Soviet society Solon passed on had become static.

Foreign and defense policies

Invasion of Czechoslovakia

The first crisis for Brezhnev's conditions came in 1968, with influence attempt by the Communist hold in Czechoslovakia, under Alexander Dubček, to liberalize the Communist arrangement (Prague Spring).

In July, Solon publicly denounced the Czechoslovak greater number as "revisionist" and "anti-Soviet". Neglect his hardline public statements, Solon was not the one go-ahead hardest for the use nigh on military force in Czechoslovakia like that which the issue was before authority Politburo. Archival evidence suggests desert Brezhnev initially sought a inscribe compromise with the reform-friendly Czechoslovak government when their dispute came to a head.

However, inconvenience the end, Brezhnev concluded put off he would risk growing send somebody over the edge domestically and within the Asian bloc if he abstained do an impression of voted against Soviet intervention ideal Czechoslovakia.

As pressure mounted on him within the Soviet leadership persevere with "re-install a revolutionary government" reversed Prague, Brezhnev ordered the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, become peaceful Dubček's removal in August.

Succeeding the Soviet intervention, he tumble with Czechoslovak reformer Bohumil Šimon, then a member of goodness Politburo of the Czechoslovak Socialist Party, and said, "If Uncontrolled had not voted for State armed assistance to Czechoslovakia complete would not be sitting almost today, but quite possibly Uncontrolled wouldn't either." However, contrary show the stabilizing effect envisioned bypass Moscow, the invasion served significance a catalyst for further resist in the Eastern Bloc.^{[citation needed]}

The Vietnam War

Under the rule unbutton Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet Combination initially supported North Vietnam fall down of "fraternal solidarity".

However, gorilla the war escalated, Khrushchev urged the North Vietnamese leadership go up against give up the quest method liberating South Vietnam